Medieval justice heavily relied on eyewitness testimony and confessions. Trials often included:

• Oaths and Sworn Testimony: Witnesses swore on religious relics or the Bible to tell the truth.
   

• Ordeal and Trial by Combat: In some regions, the accused underwent ordeals (e.g., holding hot iron) believed to reveal divine judgment.
   

• Torture: Though ethically abhorrent today, torture was employed to extract confessions.
   

The emphasis on confession made the investigation process reliant on human psychology and social pressure rather than scientific evidence.

Early Forensic Techniques

Despite the limited scientific understanding, some forensic techniques emerged:

• Coroners and Inquests: Introduced in England in the 12th century, coroners investigated sudden or suspicious deaths and reported findings to courts.
   

• Bloodstain Analysis: While primitive, some attempts to interpret blood patterns were made, such as associating fresh blood with recent violence.
   

• Identification: Descriptions of wounds, weapon marks, and physical characteristics of suspects were used to identify culprits. shutdown123